Pathology is a field of medicine where medical professionals determine the presence, or absence of disease by methods that include the morphologic examination of individual cells that have been collected, fixed or air-dried, and then visualized by a stain that highlights features of both the nucleus and the cytoplasm. The collection of the cells often involves capturing a portion of a person's body fluid, placing the body fluid on a slide, and viewing the fluid on the slide using a microscope.
One of the most commonly performed pathologic studies is the CBC (the Complete Blood Count). To perform a CBC, a sample of blood is extracted from a patient and then the cells are counted by automated or manual methods. The CBC is commonly performed by using an instrument, based on the principal of flow cytometry, which customarily aspirates anticoagulated whole blood and divides it into several analysis streams. Using the flow cytometer a number of primary and derived measurements can be determined including: i) red blood cell (RBC) count, hemoglobin (Hb), hematocrit (Hct), red blood cell indices (mean corpuscular volume, MCV, mean corpuscular hemoglobin, MCH and mean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration MCHC), red blood cell distribution width, enumeration of other red blood cells including reticulocytes and nucleated red blood cells, and red blood cell morphology; ii) white blood cell (WBC) count and WBC “differential” count (enumeration of the different normal white blood cell types, including neutrophils, lymphocytes, eosinophils, basophils and monocytes, and the probable presence of other normal and abnormal types of WBC that are present in various disease conditions); and iii) platelet count, platelet distribution widths and other features of platelets including morphological features. In flow cytometers, red blood cell, WBC, and platelet morphological characterizations are typically made indirectly, based on light absorption and light scattering techniques and/or cytochemically based measurements. Some advanced flow cytometers calculate secondary and tertiary measurements from the primary measurements.
Flow based CBC instruments generally require extensive calibration and control, maintenance, and skilled operators, and they have substantial costs associated with acquisition, service, reagents, consumables and disposables. One significant problem with these systems in routine use is that a large proportion of blood specimens require further testing to complete the assessment of the morphologic components of the CBC. This involves placing a sample of blood on a slide, smearing the sample against the slide to form a wedge smear, and placing the slide under a microscope. This process is often done manually by skilled medical technologists, which increases the cost and time to receive results from the tests. The direct visualization of blood cells on a glass slide must be performed whenever the results of the automated test require further examination of the blood sample. For example, a “manual” differential count is performed by direct visualization of the cells by an experienced observer whenever nucleated immature RBCs are found or WBCs suspicious for infection, leukemias or other hematologic diseases are found.
The proportion of these specimens requiring further review generally ranges from 10% to 50%, depending on the laboratory policy, patient population and “flagging” criteria, with a median rate of around 27%. The most frequent reasons for retesting include the presence of increased or decreased number of WBCs, RBCs or platelets, abnormal cell types or cell morphology, clinical or other suspicion of viral or bacterial infections.
In addition to additional work involved in performing manual differential counts, this process has a number of additional technical limitations. These include distortions of cell morphology because of mechanical forces involved in smearing the cells onto the slide, and cells overlapping one another, which makes visualization of individual cell morphology difficult.